Every year on June 5th, the world marks the International Day for the Fight against Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing, spotlighting the urgent threat these practices pose to marine ecosystems, food security, and coastal communities. Established by the United Nations, the day urges governments and stakeholders worldwide to step up efforts and collaborate in curbing illegal fishing and safeguarding the future of the oceans. This article will explore the impact of IUU fishing and the global initiatives aimed at combating it.
What is IUU Fishing ?
Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, abbreviated to IUU, refers to a range of practices which, in their own way, undermine the sustainable management of fishery resources. According to the FAO International Plan of Action adopted in 2001, fishing is considered to be illegal when it deliberately contravenes the laws in force, for example when vessels operate without a license, in prohibited zones or in violation of quotas. Undeclared fishing occurs when activities are not registered with the relevant authorities, thus escaping monitoring and regulation. Finally, it is considered unregulated when carried out in areas where no clear regulations apply, notably on the high seas or on species not yet covered by a specific management regime.
This tripartite definition reveals the diversity of the practices involved, as well as the complexity of the legal, political and economic mechanisms required to combat them effectively.
What causes IUU fishing ?
If IUU fishing continues on such a large scale, it is because it is driven by a combination of factors that extend far beyond the individual actions of a small number of illegal operators. A key driver of this growth is economic, with fish becoming a highly sought-after resource for human consumption, luxury markets and industrial processing. In the context of global fleet overcapacity, illegal operators seek to increase their profits at lower cost by avoiding the regulatory, fiscal and environmental constraints that legal fisheries must assume.
However, it should be noted that this parallel economy also thrives on weak institutions. In many countries, notably in West Africa and Southeast Asia, surveillance systems are underdeveloped, administrations underfunded, catch data fragmentary, and corruption endemic. Fragile states often find themselves at a disadvantage when faced with well-equipped industrial fleets, often backed by opaque agreements or shell companies, which make it possible to conceal the true owners or flags.
The globalisation of the seafood trade further exacerbates this imbalance. Supply chains are often extensive, segmented and lacking in transparency, allowing illegal catches to be laundered through ports or transshipment operations that blur the true origin of the fish.
IUU fishing : Multiple and profound impacts
From an environmental perspective, IUU fishing has a number of negative consequences. It leads to the collapse of fish stocks, weakens marine ecosystems and accelerates the loss of biodiversity. The impact of this is threefold: it increases pressure on already overexploited species, compromises conservation efforts and prevents scientists from obtaining reliable data with which to assess the true state of resources. The use of destructive methods, such as deep-sea trawling or driftnets, has been known to cause damage to sensitive habitats.
The economic impact is also a cause for concern. By distorting competition, IUU fishing penalises compliant operators and deprives coastal states of considerable tax revenues. According to the most conservative estimates, IUU fishing accounts for losses of between 10 and 23 billion dollars a year worldwide. In some regions, such as the Gulf of Guinea, this species accounts for up to 40% of catches, directly impacting local economies and employment.
There are also major social consequences. IUU fishing poses a significant threat to the food security of coastal communities by reducing access to a vital resource. Furthermore, it is frequently associated with grave human rights violations. Vessels operating outside the legal framework are known to evade all social and health standards. This is due to the fact that such vessels often engage in abusive working conditions, forced labour and the exploitation of vulnerable seafarers. This informality also feeds other forms of organised crime, from money laundering to arms or drug trafficking.
A global phenomenon, regional realities
IUU fishing is a global issue, with its scale varying according to geopolitical, economic and institutional contexts. In the region of West Africa, there has been a consistent occurrence of foreign vessels operating under ambiguous flags plundering the waters of Senegal and Mauritania. In the Pacific, industrial fleets exploit the fishery resources of small island states, which often lack the capacity to ensure effective control. In the Bering Sea and South Atlantic, the main culprits are Russian and Chinese fleets.
Estimates indicate that the annual total of IUU catches is between 11 and 26 million tonnes, representing approximately 20% of the global catch. In certain areas where control systems are inadequate or bypassed, levels of the phenomenon can reach much higher heights.
An assessment tool: the IUU Fishing Index
In light of this, a range of tools has been developed to more effectively identify at-risk areas and assess the effectiveness of states. The IUU Index, developed by the Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime and Poseidon Aquatic Resource Management, is a tool that ranks countries according to their exposure to and response to the phenomenon.
In the latest edition, China has the highest risk score, ahead of Russia, Taiwan, Vietnam and South Korea. Conversely, countries such as Norway, the USA and New Zealand achieve low scores, indicating the presence of robust governance systems and effective dissuasive measures. The index is designed to assess countries’ performance as flag, operating, port or market states, emphasising their distinct yet often interconnected responsibilities.
China’s controversial central role in IUU Fishing
China’s extensive deep-sea fleet, which is now the largest in the world, represents the scale and complexity of IUU fishing. With a fleet of over 2,500 vessels, it provides a comprehensive global coverage, spanning from the South Atlantic to the Pacific, and from West Africa to the far reaches of the Arctic. This substantial presence is accompanied by significant pressure on commercially valuable fish stocks, including squid, tuna, sardines, hake and crustaceans. The fleet often operates outside the international legal framework, due to the systematic use of areas with little or no regulation, or opaque bilateral agreements with developing countries.
Reports by the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF), Global Fishing Watch and Greenpeace, among others, have documented frequent incursions by Chinese vessels into the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of third countries, often without the necessary official licences. These practices deprive coastal states of vital resources and undermine their efforts at sustainable management. The Chinese fleet is distinguished by its advanced strategies for circumventing the rules. In the pursuit of optimising profits and evading surveillance, a range of tactics have been employed, including the deliberate deactivation of the automatic identification system (AIS), frequent changes to flag status, the use of shell companies to disguise the real ownership of vessels, and the implementation of destructive techniques such as deep-sea trawling.
According to another investigation by the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) has revealed that the Chinese tuna fleet operating in the Indian Ocean makes extensive use of forced labour by North Korean sailors. The report indicates that China plays a key role in this system of exploitation, employing on its ships workers sent by the North Korean regime. These workers are subjected to extremely harsh living and working conditions that resemble modern-day slavery. North Korean sailors are often isolated at sea for extended periods, with restricted freedom of movement and communication. They are frequently transferred from one ship to another to avoid identification and repatriation. Despite international sanctions banning this type of labour, China continues to allow its fleet to benefit from this exploitation, thus contributing to the violation of human rights and the perpetuation of forced labour in the industrial fishing sector.
Despite China’s recent ratification of the Port State Measures Agreement (PSMA), an international treaty aimed at enhancing the oversight of port landings, the practical implementation of its obligations remains restricted. Observers have noted a persistent lack of transparency and reluctance to establish independent control mechanisms. This case demonstrates the deficiencies in global maritime governance, and the way in which certain actors exploit these loopholes on a large scale.
Legal frameworks under construction to combat IUU Fishing
In response to this threat, the international community has gradually established a set of regulations designed to govern fishing activities and combat IUU practices. The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, adopted in 1995, sets out the main principles. It is complemented by the International Plan of Action against IUU fishing (2001), the New York Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks (1995), and above all by the WFMC Agreement, which came into force in 2016, enabling states to deny access to their ports to vessels suspected of illegal practices.
These measures are reinforced by the actions of Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs), the regulations of certain importing powers such as the European Union and the United States, and by the commitments made as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, in particular target 14.6, which aims to eliminate harmful subsidies to fishing.
Technical and political cooperation
Success in the fight against IUU fishing depends largely on the ability of states to cooperate, exchange data and pool their surveillance resources. Initiatives such as Global Fishing Watch now make it possible to track the movements of thousands of vessels in near-real time using satellite data. Some coalitions, such as the Alliance Against IUU Fishing, bring together governments, NGOs and companies to increase transparency.
But technology alone is not enough. It must be accompanied by a clear political commitment, dissuasive sanctions and reinforced support for the most vulnerable countries. The example of Thailand, which after being placed under surveillance by the European Union has profoundly reformed its sector, shows that progress is possible. Elsewhere, results are more mixed, particularly in countries where short-term economic interests still take precedence over resource conservation.
A global emergency
The issue of IUU fishing must be addressed through a comprehensive regulatory framework, encompassing all relevant sectors. It represents a global challenge, at the crossroads of the environment, the economy and human security. The depletion of marine resources, the destabilisation of coastal economies and the threat to communities that depend on fish for their livelihoods all point to the jeopardy of fragile balances.
Achieving this goal will require a strong international commitment, targeted measures and a long-term vision. Preserving the ocean is integral to ensuring food sovereignty, social justice and the future of generations to come.
The fight against IUU fishing has reached a decisive turning point. While the normative and technological advances of recent years have enabled more precise definition of the scale of the phenomenon and identification of its most visible manifestations, efforts to reverse the trend are still underway. The balance of power remains largely unfavourable to the most exposed countries, which often lack the necessary control capabilities, while the most powerful players in the sector exploit the blind spots in global governance with formidable efficiency.
